Resources
Abboud, Sarah, Perla Chebli, and Em Rabelais. “The Contested Whiteness of Arab Identity in the United States: Implications for Health Disparities Research.” American Journal of Public Health 109, no. 11 (2019): 1580–83. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305285.
Ajrouch, Kristine J., and Amaney Jamal. “Assimilating to a White Identity: The Case of Arab Americans.” The International Migration Review 41, no. 4 (2007): 860–79.
Dhillon, Hardeep. “The Making of Modern US Citizenship and Alienage: The History of Asian Immigration, Racial Capital, and US Law.” Law and History Review 41, no. 1 (2023): 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0738248023000019.
Dow v. United States, 226 F. 145 (Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit 1915). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/8812549/dow-v-united-states/. 140 C.C.A. 549, 1915 U.S. App. LEXIS 2183.
Ex Parte Dow, 211 F. 486 (District Court, E.D. South Carolina 1914). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/8806875/ex-parte-dow/. 1914 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 1121.
Gualtieri, Sarah. Between Arab and White: Race and Ethnicity in the Early Syrian American Diaspora. University of California Press, 2009. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/reed/detail.action?docID=837328.
Hernandez, Kelly Lytle. “The Whites-Only Immigration Regime.” Western Historical Quarterly 56, no. 1 (2025): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1093/whq/whae078.
In Re Dow, 213 F. 355 (District Court, E.D. South Carolina 1914). https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/8807595/in-re-dow/. 1914 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 958.
Jamal, Amaney A., and Nadine Christine Naber. Race and Arab Americans before and after 9/11: From Invisible Citizens to Visible Subjects. 1st ed. Arab American Writing. Syracuse University Press, 2008.
Kayyali, Randa. “US Census Classifications and Arab Americans: Contestations and Definitions of Identity Markers.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 39, no. 8 (2013): 1299–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2013.778150.
Khater, Akram Fouad. “Arabs in America.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.600.
Khoshneviss, Hadi. “Accruing Whiteness: Power and Resistance in Prerequisite Citizenship Cases of Immigrants from the ‘Middle East.’” Citizenship Studies 25, no. 5 (2021): 620–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2021.1923658.
Kim, Claire Jean. Asian Americans in an Anti-Black World. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009222280.
Maghbouleh, Neda. The Limits of Whiteness: Iranian Americans and the Everyday Politics of Race. Stanford University Press, 2017.
Marks, Rachel, Nicholas Jones, and Karen Battle. “What Updates to OMB’s Race/Ethnicity Standards Mean for the Census Bureau.” Government. Census.Gov, April 8, 2024. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2024/04/updates-race-ethnicity-standards.html.
Qutami, Loubna. “Censusless: Arab/Muslim Interpolation into Whiteness and the War on Terror.” Journal of Asian American Studies (Baltimore, United States) 23, no. 2 (2020): 161–200. https://doi.org/10.1353/jaas.2020.0017.
Rashida Tlaib, dir. Rep. Tlaib to Census Bureau Director: Do I Look White To You? 2020. 5:13. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XMVX93vtZjc.
Resnicow, Ken, Matthew Jaber Stiffler, and Kristine J. Ajrouch. “Looking Back: The Contested Whiteness of Arab Identity.” OPINIONS, IDEAS, & PRACTICE. American Journal of Public Health (Washington, United States) 112, no. 8 (2022): 1092–96.
Tehranian, John. Whitewashed: America’s Invisible Middle Eastern Minority. Critical America. University Press, 2009.
US Census Bureau. “Lebanese, Iranian and Egyptian Populations Represented Nearly Half of the MENA Population in 2020 Census.” Census.Gov. Accessed December 4, 2025. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2023/09/2020-census-dhc-a-mena-population.html.