Minoru Yasui: His Case and Character within the Community

An Anxious Atmosphere

Although Minoru Yasui’s actions are widely celebrated today, they were incredibly controversial at the time, even within the Japanese-American community. In fact, Yasui was condemned and censured for his activism by the Japanese-American Citizens League (JACL). Although both parties genuinely sought out the best interests of the Japanese-American community, doing so in the tenuous circumstances of the time complicated the matter. Furthermore, even after his appeal in the Supreme Court was overturned on April 17th, 1943, Yasui had acquired influence within the Japanese-American community, especially with those who were inspired by his actions to pursue other modes of civil disobedience.

The Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941, had immediate and catastrophic consequences for the Japanese American community. Within the first day after the attack, the FBI had arrested 1,300 “dangerous aliens,” a figure which would rise to well over 3,000 by the end of the month. In addition to targeting those with tangible connections to Japan, law enforcement also targeted any Issei–first-generation Japanese immigrants–who may have held influence within the community.  According to Paul Spickard, the consequences were immediate and catastrophic: “whole communities were paralyzed” and left leaderless, and “the institutional processes of Japanese American communities nearly ground to a halt.” The only organization in any position to deal with the crises was the JACL[1].

The JACL Strategy 

In the following months, the JACL’s strategy for handling the crisis rested upon four key points: To a) establish themselves as the undisputed leaders of the Japanese American people, b) improve the public image of Japanese Americans, c) form amicable and working relationships with government officials, and d) ease the suffering of their people.  They urged the community to resolutely demonstrate their patriotism and loyalty as Americans, to act in full and faithful cooperation with government orders, and firmly distance themselves from anyone or anything which could be even remotely subversive[2]. Responding to the accumulating injustices that tore through communities, the JACL executive and field secretary counselled thus:

"Any inconvenience that comes our way must be borne cheerfully and graciously in the knowledge that it is essential to the waging of this terrible struggle for survival between slavery and democracy; ... our hardships are inconsequential."[3]

Condemnation

In this atmosphere, Yasui’s decision to challenge the curfew order was met with condemnation by some, and uncertainty by many more Japanese-Americans. The position of the National JACL on the matter was unambigious however. In an official bulletin sent to all chapters on the matter, Mike Masuoka writes:

“The national J.A.C.L. headquarters is unilaterally opposed to test cases to determine the constitutionality of military regulations at this time.” [4]

Although they give 10 objections in total, their reasoning can be summarized within three key points:

• By their very nature, such cases fly in the face of quiet cooperation and loyalty
• The case had little chance of succeeding, and also was deemed nonoptimal as a test case.
• It could generate negative publicity, and thus incur retaliatory actions against the Japanese-American community, official or otherwise.[5] 

Yasui would publish a rebuttal to the JACL's arguments on April 17, 1942, and another memorandum later that year making the general argument in favor of supporting test cases such as his. Interestingly, Yasui also indicates his ostensible agreement with elements of Masuoka's arguments. Explaining why he did not protest to further orders, Yasui explains:

"A series of disobediences and defiences against the military authorities would antagonize and inflame public opinion. The legal reservations of the question of the rights of American citizens would be sufficient. The physical aspects of evacuation is bad, but I had advocated cooperation with the physical and practical phases of evacuation, because we are compelled to make the best of a very bad situation." [6]

Although the exact details surronding the creation of this memoradum are unclear, Yasui's later actions and remarks suggest that the similarity in his stance with that of the JACL on the matter of cooperation was not accidental. He was admittedly rankled by Masuoka's charecterization of him as a "self-styled martyr" and disagrees with Masuoka's legal assessment of his case.[7] However, when asked if he believed the JACL could have taken a stronger stance, he responded "too many people think JACL could have done something. [The] JACL, in my opinion, could have done nothing" to prevent internment.[8] As pointed out by Spickard, there is an unquestionable truth in the statement that, during the winter and early spring of 1941-1942, there was no alternative official position which could have been realistically adopted other then cooperation; "anything less... would have incurred the wrath of the majority of the U.S. population." [9] 

 

Conflict with Draft Resistors

Of course, the stance of the JACL could not encapsulate the feelings of all Japanese-Americans, and was more representative of an extreme, albeit vocal, minority–one which by late 1942, had become almost universally repudiated by the community.[10] Many more were conflicted in their judgement of Yasui. Some of a more conservative inclination, such as Tsuguo Ikeda, found it difficult to justify Yasui’s disobedience, because they had “been taught to obey orders” while growing up. However, that same conviction which led Yasui to civil disobedience also left an “real impression” on Ikeda; meeting Yasui “was the first time I met a Nisei who was so outspoken… and could articulate it,” a quality which fostered inspiration and respect.[11]  Yasui also undoubtedly had supporters, especially from Oregonians; in the absence of any funding or support from the JACL, Yasui recalls getting moral and financial assistance from “the San Francisco people in the Topaz camp and in Minidoka,” who indicated “they were willing to support me in every way possible” during his legal proceedings."[12] 

After Yasui ultimately lost his appeal in the Supreme Court on April 17th, 1943, he was transfered to the Minidoka Relocation Center in Idaho. There, he was often approached by those curious to meet the man they had read about in their camp newspapers. For Jim Akutsu and Yosh Kuromiya, both of whom were invovled in orginizing resistances to the draft, these meetings left them confused and disappointed. They came away with the impression that Yasui did not support their protest efforts, that he believed they were making a mistake and was trying to talk them out of it. He apparently warned them from his own experience in Yasui v. United States that they would get “a kangaroo court at best, and therefore you won’t get a fair trial."[13]

Yasui’s own recollection would seem to corroborate this, to a degree. Recalling his involvement with draft resistors, he deliberately advised them to fulfill their obligations as citizens prior to demanding a recognition of their rights.

“‘As long as you are protesting actions by the government,’ that they fulfill their obligations. It put the protestors, it seemed to me, in a far better position to say that, ‘we have fulfilled our obligations and therefore our rights are due to us.”

His personal writings would also certainly suggest that he considered military service one of these obligations, and on several occasions, he is also frank about his enduring desire to fulfill this obligation; “For my part, I’m still anxious to get into this man’s army, because I feel so darned left out of the big fight.” [15] The petition he drafted for Nisei men and their mothers in Feburary, 1944, which addressed concerns about receiving the full benefits of citizenship once they fufilled their service obligations, would also seem to indicate his moderation in regard to earlier draft resistors.

Thus, for those like Akutsu and Kuromiya who did believe in protesting the injustice of the United States Government, Yasui's legacy can, and still is, seen as a disappointment. For them, he did not go far enough.

Footnotes:

1) Spickard, Paul. “The Nisei Assume Power: The Japanese Citizens League, 1941-1942.” Pacific Historical Review 52, no 2 (1983): p. 156

2) Spickard. “The Nisei Assume Power.” p. 158

3) Mike Masuoka. Rafu Shimpo. March 11, 1941. Qtd., in Spickard, “The Nisei Assume Power.” p. 168

4) Yasui, Minoru. Minoru Yasui letter outlining the J.A.C.L. (Japanese American Citizens League) official stand on the government’s decision to forcibly remove Japanese Americans and Minoru Yasui’s rebuttal. April 17, 1942, p.1

5) Yasui. Letter outlining the J.A.C.L. Official Stand. p. 1-5

6) Yasui, Minoru. "Why we should support test cases.” cir. 1942. P. 2

7) For Masuoka’s description of Yasui, see Letter Outlining the JACL Official Stand, p. 1; for Yasui’s personal opinion, see: “Minoru Yasui Interview, Segment 9” Interviewed by Stevan Okazaki, October 23, 1983. Densho Digital Repository, accessed 2022: https://ddr.densho.org/interviews/ddr-densho-1012-3-9/

8) “Minoru Yasui Interview, Segment 9.”

9) Spickard. “The Nisei Assume Power,” p. 171

1.  The JACL's cooperation and close ties with the government deeply stained their standing with a majority of Issei and Nisei both. On several occasions, accumulated anger and frustration even led to violence against JACL members. See Spickard, "The Nisei Assume Power," pp. 168-172.

2. “Tsugo ‘Ike’ Ikeda Interview II, Segment 3.” Interviewed by Alice Ito, October 6, 2000. Densho Digital Repository, accessed 2022: https://ddr.densho.org/interviews/ddr-densho-1000-124-3/ 

3. “Minoru Yasui Interview, Segment 9.”

4.  “Jim Akutsu Interview, Segment 4.” Interviewed by Frank Abe, August 28, 1993. Densho Digital Repository, accessed 2022: https://ddr.densho.org/interviews/ddr-densho-122-12-4/; “Yosh Kuromiya Interview, Segment 3.” Interviewed by Frank Abe, August 15-16, 1993. Densho Digital Repository, accessed 2022: https://ddr.densho.org/interviews/ddr-densho-122-8-3/ 

5. “Minoru Yasui Interview, Segment 10.”

6.  Yasui, Minoru. “Nisei Petition by Minoru Yasui.” February 10, 1944. Densho Digital Repository; It is also worth noting that, upon the United State's entry into the war,  one of the first things Yasui did was resign from his job and report for active duty at Camp Vancouver in Vancouver. He later recalls that it "felt terrible"  to be "rejected on the grounds that 'well, we don't know, we'll let you know later.'" See: "Minoru Yasui Interview, Segment 1.”